The Effects of Video Games

Video games effects on social life Many people have always been looking for some type of entertainment, and it has been through many forms, from playing with toys, to playing cards, to playing sports, and etc. However, nowadays with so much access to technology and everything that it offers. Various entertainments are way more exciting and sophisticated. Among the new electronic inventions, the 21 the century has revealed video games, a new exhilaration creating a virtual word on computers, on TV and different platforms like smartness.Which can be very useful in a dull, vague or boring situation. Video games have turned to be an amazing source of entertainment because of their diversity, their innovation, and their capacity to be so close to the reality. It has been shown that video games were developing skills for gamers and were a great social instrument. Nevertheless, videotapes have always been a subject of controversy and seen by a lot of people/parent's as dangerous and a bad i nfluence, causing addiction, bad behaviors, or even violence, which is true! However there are many Positive effects as well.In this essay I will explain the causes and effects of video games on an individual such as myself; and how I tend to abuse good things without moderation. I state many opinions that embrace new technologies and see it as a great social instrument; But overall explaining how playing Video games can create and cause some positive and negative effects on my lifestyle. The usefulness of good things has always been a problem for me, causing me to drift and abuse certain things, which is becoming a self-disciplinary problem, not to mention creating dictions.An addiction can be defined by a physical or psychological need for a habit-forming substance. And that substance for me is playing video games, so in other words playing video games gives me the comfort and excitement that I need. But also distracting and causing me to develop badly habits but however, is that a good or bad thing? Many times it creates bad habits and causes me to develop laziness, affecting my schoolwork or work performance.Consequently, I tend to lack assignments and time management, for instance, turning in my assignments late or implementing them at the last minute because I'm up all night trying to complete a level on a certain game and when I start a new level I can't sleep until its completed. So for several cases I would say it's a bad thing. In some cases playing video games gets out of control because I tend avoid many social activities with my family and friends because it has most of my have my attention. Once I'm in my gaming habitat its hard to pull me away from it. It's sort of like a drug. At times I feel as if I am in the game and I can't get out.Sometime my family and friends don't call me to do social activities because they think my answer is always going to be no! Although, Sometimes it aggravates me because there are times where I'm not playing video games and I want to go out and the times I call them to go out they say there busy. So avoid social activities; it creates a mental warfare and selfishness, affecting me in negative ways for to perform, succeed, pursue, and socialize. As a basketball player, I personally play a lot of video games to keep my mind â€Å"in the game† and still having a ay to practice while I am resting.Video games are a great entertainment source to me, it helps me learn and develop different skills. However some games are a great simulator of life and are really efficient for athletes with games like NAB K, FIFE, and Madden Football sometimes giving me the ability to learn and then go out there and practice. Because it creates self-motivation, causing an athlete like myself to get better. They develop notably a better hand/eye coordination, a high level of focus, repetition, and fundamentals Thus having some positive effects.In conclusion I say that I really enjoy playing video games and I defi nitely think it is an amazing creation, I am still wondering how people can be able to create such a sophisticated entertainment and I am also totally aware of the risks that I take. And I know the feeling of wanting to play a little bit more and ending going to bed at Sam while I have to wake up at 8 to go to school the same morning. I am learning to overcome my addictions and bad habits and evolve in the smart way and apply simple solutions that I intake and maybe help people with similar problems.

Environmental Impact of Aviation Essay

Today, the world is bothered by the environmental issues reverberating in different parts of the world. Part of this environmental issue is focused on global warming. As part of the whole world’s response on the important concern, laws and policies have been drafted. Some of the known environmental policies are Clean Air Act and the Kyoto Protocol. Meanwhile, the Kyoto Protocol is an agreement between different nations, mainly industrialized, adopted on December 1997 in Kyoto, Japan (United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, 2008). The central function of the protocol is to set a target on the greenhouse gas emission for member countries (United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, 2008). This is to further reduce the impending consequences of the greenhouse effect. Since the report of international scientist that climate change is worsening, all sector of the society and all nations have been invited to participate in activities primarily to help cut gas emissions. Each government of member nations also implemented programs in order to reduce the gas emission that is aggravating the global environment situation. For the past years, the reality of the phenomenon has been severally debated, even among politicians. Eventually, environment was considered as priority in the policy making. Additionally, the international concern on global warming has reached every sector, big or small, in the society. Among the business sectors, rules and regulations have also been adopted internationally in order that a standard of environmentally hazardous substances be eliminated or minimized. An example could be the non use of lead. In Europe, the Restriction on Hazardous Substances was adopted and imposed upon all its suppliers worldwide (ROHS, 2008). According to the guidelines, minimum amount of the hazardous substances should be maintained. Hence, quality of the product depends on the substances comprising the product. The environmental issue, however, is not only limited to gas emissions and global warming. Instead it covers all kinds of pollution. In the field of aviation, policies and guidelines on environmental compliance also apply. Aviation plays a vital role in transportation. It is the easiest, fastest, and more convenient means in transporting people and goods from one border to another or from nation to nation. Being an essential factor in the growth of economy, it also has an essential contribution to global warming and other environmental problems. Remarkably, the aviation contributes to various environmental problems. One of the major problems faced by aviation industry is the noise pollution being suffered by the residence nearby airports (Kutz, 2008). At present, the aviation is one among the growing business opportunities. Since new and more improved planes have been introduced, the air traffic also increases. As such, there is also intensification of the environmental concerns. The second environmental problem affecting the industry is the climate change. Climate change is the foremost environmental phenomenon that is bothering the international community. In addition, it is believed to be the cause of the drastic change in weather and the emergence of illnesses. The third major problem being caused by aviation is the poor air quality (Kutz, 2008). All these environmental concerns are mandated by laws to be addressed by the aviation industry. In the field of aviation, BAA is widely known for being the world’s leading airport company (House of Commons, et. al. , 2004). At present, it is operating eight airports namely; Heathrow, Gatwick, Stansted, Glasgow, Edinburgh, Aberdeen, Southampton, and Naples (BAA, 2008). At present, its success still continues to shine and more developments are being planned in the future. In a report propounded by the BAA for year 2005-2006, the company laid down in details the achievements and plans of each airport. Aside from that, it also presented its financial statement to show the financial operation of the company. At a glance, the company has indeed a successful and is in a stable financial status. The over-all operation and employee handling are excellent. According to Mick Temple, Divisional Director, the company recognizes the existence of the environmental issues (Temple). But, the report of BAA did not actually addressed all issue about environment related to airline or airport. In addition, the BAA presented its report in a categorical yet orderly manner. After presenting the achievements, developments, and plans of each airport, the BAA also discussed issues faced by the company. It has specified corporate responsibilities. In scrutinizing the report, the BAA did not actually address all environmental problems. As stated earlier, aviation industry is challenged by problems on poor air quality, noise pollution, and climate change. In the report of the BAA, the report laid down the corporate responsibilities of the company but in a summarized and general form. Although it has addressed all the problems cited, it did not actually specified its future plan, present programs, current status and its over-all stand on the impending environmental problems. In addressing the environmental problem on air quality, the report stated its concern on the problem that is affecting both local and national (Temple). Notably, airports around emits nitrogen dioxide and other fine particles that have negative effect on heath and environment (BAA, 2008). In addition, it has stressed on government’s declaration of Heathrow’s compliance to EU Air Quality Standard (Temple). Contributing to poor air quality, however, are M4 and M25 traffic (BAA, 2008). Likewise, the report merely added measures it can implement in order to comply with the standard. These measures include â€Å"investing in public transport, promoting alternative fuels for airport- based vehicles, and using charges to penalise aircraft with poorer emissions standards† (Temple, p. 35). However, no other reports were propounded to show that these measures have been adopted. Furthermore, the company merely reiterates its desire to review its emission while extending help to other companies with regard to the problem. As to noise pollution, the aviation is considered as one among the major contributor due to noise caused by take offs and landings? taxiing, and engine tests (BAA, 2008). With regard to BAA’s stand on noise pollution, the company has laid down its strategies in minimizing the noise. In addition, it stated its desire to work with local government, airlines, and air traffic controllers to jointly implement these strategies. First strategy is the encouragement on the use of quieter new aircraft and engine by the manufacturers (Temple). The second strategy is giving reward to those airlines using a quieter aircrafts. The fourth strategy is the improvement of compliance with quieter operating practices (Temple). The last strategy is concerned with updates of information by keeping the noise-sufferers informed better (Temple). Today, the company is doing its part in addressing the complaints of those affected by the noise of airports. Furthermore, on the most relevant environmental issue on climate change, the company proudly stressed its target of 15% reduction on its carbon dioxide emission by 2010, which is even higher than the standard (Temple). The company’s strategy is focused on energy efficiency and renewable energy (Temple). Moreover, it has also implied its adherence to Emission trading which allows business incapable of achieving the target to buy permits from those industries that are capable but only within an overall cap (Temple). At present, the company is lobbying for the recognition of the emission trading to be an acceptable mechanism in greenhouse gas emission. In addition, in its desire to reduce the impact of climate change, the company is committed in investing into new energy efficient technology, sourcing out more renewable energy, reducing emissions of vehicles in the airport, among others (BAA, 2008). Based on the above mentioned, the report of BAA may be said to have mentioned the major environmental problems faced by airlines and airports. However, it was not able to state its impact on environment. It did not also laid down the programs it has adopted to address the issue. But nevertheless, it has recognized its role in the environment. By looking into the context of the report, is can be said that the company has been unfairly assessed. It is unfair on the reason that the report presented more on the developments, future plans, and achievements of the company but did not directly addressed on the corporate responsibilities. It is true that corporate responsibility have been included in the middle part, but there is no clear stand of the company. The report stressed on the company’s plan to expand, increase passengers, intensify investment but there are no more details as to the company’s action on environmental issues. Significantly, it did not state any of its achievements in helping in the abatement of the environmental problems. It merely presented it strategies but no update has been included as to the implementation and status of the company. Interestingly, the report of the Managing Directors of each airport has concentrated on the importance of shareholders. Hence, the report was concentrated on the good sides about the company. Airports and airlines are considered as one among the places vulnerable of being attacked by terrorist groups. Notably, in 2007, Glasgow Airport has been attacked by terrorists (BAA, 2008). On that very threatening day, the company has been given an idea on the loopholes on the airport’s security. It is also of no doubt that millions of passengers and employees come in and out of the airport. In line with this, the treat of terrorism has made passenger paranoid about safety. Hence, it is but necessary that safety should be the paramount concern of the company. In response to the attack in July, 2007, the company declared its dedication in making its passengers secure. As part of its response, the company has closely worked with the Department for Transport (DfT) for guidance on its security measures (Temple). Moreover, in concurrence with the government’s standard, the company has conducted a full range review of its security systems (Temple). In order to show its sincerity in making its airports secured and safe, the company has started using technological innovations such as hold-baggage screening, new security screening and x-ray screening (Temple). In line with the company’s purpose of ensuring safety and health of its passengers and employees, policies and programs have been adopted. Additionally, according to the report, the company’s stance on security is that it is considering it as a crucial issue. Aside from its possible effect on the company’s reputation, it also recognizes its effect on passengers’ experiences. As such, the company works closely with the government agencies, armed forces, and police force in order to upgrade its security system and match with that of government security (Temple). Furthermore, it has committed itself to comply with regulations concerning safety. In accordance with this, the Health, Safety, Security and Environment (HSSE) Executive Committee have been founded with the primary goal of determining and addressing these issues affecting the company (Temple). With the growing environmental concern, some say that aviation industry is not a sustainable business. However, BAA has proven this statement wrong. In order that environmental issue be addressed and at the same time maintain or increase the profitability of the company, the company may enhance its training on environmental awareness to its employees and passengers. In addition, carbon dioxide emission can be reduced through the use of biodeisel and other alternative energy. Moreover, through reducing its flight, the company could decrease its environmental impact but can increase profit because all flights would be certainly be filled. Another measure could be on the retail sector. Since the airports are open for stores, environmental measures should also be imposed upon them. Some of the policy that can be adopted is the ban on non-recyclable things. Through this measure, all waste coming from stores would be put to recycling areas. Finally, the company could enhance its pro- environment policies despite cost on its part. This way, the cost would be repaid by the loyalty and continued patronage of the passengers. References BAA. (2008). Corporate Responsibility. Retrieved October 31, 2008, from http://www. baa. com/portal/site/default/menuitem. a875fc32913746f398a5e186c02865a0/. House of Commons, Great Britain Parliament – Environment, Food and Rural Affairs Committee. (2004). International Challenge of Climate. London: The Stationery Office. Kutz, M. (2008). Environmentally Conscious Transportation. London: John Wiley and Sons. ROHS. (2008). Restriction on the Use of hazardous Substances (ROHS). Retrieved October 31, 2008, from http://www. rohs. gov. uk/. Temple, M. (2008). BAA Annual Report 2005/06. Corporate Responsibility. Retrieved October 31, 2008, from http://www. baa. com/assets//B2CPortal/Static%20Files/BAA_Annualreport_05-06. pdf. United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. (2008). Kyoto Protocol. Retrieved October 31, 2008, from http://unfccc. int/kyoto_protocol/items/2830. php.

Biblical Terms Used in Counseling

Dr. William Roberts LaTonia Watkins Liberty University COUN 501 December 18, 2009 Abstract The topic of counseling has been up for discussion for sometime as it relates to the spiritual or biblical aspect versus the worldview or secular concept. There has been some disagreement in regards to whether or not one can be a Christian counselor who have a level of morals and ethics that will allow them to not let their own personal beliefs affect the level of service they provide, when faced with an issue that goes against their beliefs. Upon conducting a biblical word search for counsel or counseling related terms it becomes evident that the core principles and foundation of counseling is found throughout the bible. The information obtained will detail the usefulness of the Bible in engaging in a meaningful as well as effective counseling profession. Biblical Terms Used In Counseling There has been much dispute as to the usefulness and validity for using biblical concepts in counseling. The most common disagreement is found between counseling professionals and Christian counseling professionals. Pride (2006) states, â€Å"psychology approaches human behavior from a secular, humanistic perspective. † Accordingly, Biblical revelation is irrelevant to understanding or changing human behavior. Psychology seeks to describe and explain human behavior apart from what God has clearly revealed. Its premises are derived from man-made theories, human wisdom and research conducted without a corresponding search for truth as God defines truth. Clinton and Ohlschlager (2002) have a different opinion of counseling and prefer using the Bible stating â€Å"secular psychology begins with a study of man’s ideas; Biblical counseling begins with a study of the Word of God as it relates to human behavior and human need. Therefore it is dependent upon the revealed mind of God rather than the easily deceived mind of man. † However it does not begin with God, it follows a path that lines up with the Word of God and examines man’s problems in light of God’s responses. The two aforementioned viewpoints are clear cut examples of the differences in opinions and viewpoints for counseling from a secular perspective as well as the religious perspective. Another view of counseling attempts to integrate religion/biblical views or perspectives with psychological counseling which is known as the secular-humanist view. Some view counseling as a process of prayerfully and sensitively listening to another person (Proverbs 18:13, 17), helping discern soul needs and providing biblical advice towards changing the attitudes and behaviors towards modeling God. The goal of this paper is to demonstrate the validity of the Bible as a source for counseling and to expand the overall view of counseling perspectives. By examining words and concepts in the Bible as they relate to counseling the relationship between the two will be discovered. Using Biblical concepts adds depth and enriches the counseling relationship (Pride, 2006). Also addressed in this paper will be the ways of Biblical terms and their relationship to modern counseling concepts. Biblical counseling terms can provide a useful tool for counseling as well as allows for an understanding of counseling concepts in the field of counseling. Biblical Words Related to Counseling Counsel The term counsel is found to be translated 80 times throughout the King James Version of the bible which includes 74 verses between the Old Testament and the New Testament combined. According to the word search the term counsel is used interchangeably with several terms in the bible such as advise (Qal), consult (Nipal) and conspire (Hithpael). Judges 18:5 â€Å"They said, ‘Oh, good- inquire of God for us. Find out whether our mission will be a success. †Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ In this passage they are seeking (consult) God for his guidance (advise) in regards to the outcome of their mission. I Kings 12:8-9 â€Å"But he rejected the counsel of the elders and asked the young men he’d grown up with who were now currying his favor, ‘What do you think? What should I say to these people who are saying, give us a break from your father’s harsh ways- lighten up on us’? † This passage also shows an example of someone seeking advice in their situation. Mark 3:6 â€Å"The Pharisees got out as fast as they could, sputtering about how they would join forces with Herod’s followers and ruin him. † This scripture details how the Pharisees consulted together and decide that they would join forces with Herod’s followers and go against Jesus. John 18:14 â€Å"It was Caiaphas who had advised the Jews that it was to their advantage that one man die for the people. † In this scripture Caiaphas is advising (counseling) the people on Jesus dying for the people. Advise The word advise has 947 different translations in 873 versus in the King James Version of the Bible and is derived from the Hebrew word ya-ats, meaning to know, learn to know, to perceive, see and discern, to name a few. These translations were only referenced to the Old Testament according to Blue Letter Bible; however after cross referencing with Crosswalk, New Testament scriptures were listed as well. Exodus 18:19 â€Å"Now listen to me. Let me tell you how to do this so that God will be in this with you. Be there for the people before God, but let the matters of concern be presented to God. † This scripture details Moses father in law advising him to be there for the people, however to allow God to handle everything and work things out for them. I Kings 12:6 â€Å"King Rehoboam talked it over with the elders who had advised his father when he was alive. ‘What’s your counsel? How do you suggest that I answer the people? ’† In this scripture the King is seeking to be counseled and advised from the elders as to how he should treat the people. Acts 21:21 â€Å"Theyve been told that you advise believing Jews who live surrounded by Gentiles to go light on Moses, telling them that they dont need to circumcise their children or keep up the old traditions. This isnt sitting at all well with them. † In this scripture they are discussing getting advise as to whether they should follow the traditional teachings of Moses and allow their children to be circumcised or if they should go against tradition. Help The word help appears 126 times in 117 versus throughout the King James Version of the Bible the Old and New Testament according to Blue letter Bible. Help is listed as to help (Qal), succor (Niphal), or support (Hiphil) which is defined as to give or provide what is necessary to accomplish a task or satisfy a need; to contribute strength or means to; render assistance to; to cooperate effectively (Webster 2005). Genesis 2:18 â€Å"God said, ‘It’s not good for the Man to be alone; I’ll make him a helper, a companion. ’† In this scripture help is being used in the form of God giving Adam a companion in order for him to no longer be alone. Mark 9:24 â€Å"No sooner were the words out of his mouth than the father cried, ‘Then I believe. Help me with my doubts! ’† In this scripture the father of the demon possessed boy was seeking Jesus’ help with casting the demon out of his son. The father was acknowledging that he had a need of Jesus and that he knew that Jesus could help him, although a part of him had doubts, I would venture to say it was because the disciples had tried to cast the demon out of the boy and were unable to do so. Advice The word advice appears 9 times in 9 versus in the King James Version of the Bible and is derived from the Hebrew word dabar, meaning speech, word, speaking, thing. II Samuel 19:43 â€Å"And the men of Israel answered the men of Judah, and said , We have ten parts in the king, and we have also more right in David than ye: why then did ye despise us, that our advice should not be first had in bringing back our king? And the words of the men of Judah were fiercer than the words of the men of Israel. † In this scripture they are seeking advice as to why they were not sought out first as to the decision regarding bringing back the king. I Corinthians 1:10 â€Å"I have a serious concern to bring up with you, my friends, using the authority of Jesus, our Master. Ill put it as urgently as I can: You must get along with each other. You must learn to be considerate of one another, cultivating a life in common. † In this scripture Paul is giving the people advice on getting along with each other and learning to be considerate. Discussion After completing this assignment and getting the information and knowledge gained from this course I can say that my view of counseling has changed. Although I have read the bible many times, and I am taking up Professional Counseling, it did not occur to me until this assignment how the bible is definitely the foundation for any counseling practice. When you look at some of the terms used to describe Jesus in the text,( i. e. Master, Teacher, Counselor, etc. ) it puts things in to perspective as to where the foundation of counseling began. Jesus is the central focus of counseling and the exemplar of the Wonderful Counselor. The Bible is about counseling, giving both understanding of people and methods of ministering to people. The fear of God is the beginning of wisdom, and wisdom is the only worthy goal of counseling. (Carson, 2005). The Bible is authoritative, relevant and comprehensively sufficient for counseling. God has spoken to every issue that humans could possible face in the 66 Books of the Bible, which establishes the goal of counseling, how to change, what the role of the counselor is, counseling methods and so much more. The Bible’s view of counseling defines a distinctive ideal for how we as humans should live. The image of Christ is a familiar item in Christian profession, but its implications are often ignored when it comes to counseling. Much of the difficulty of counseling consists in sustaining suffers in hope through the comforts of the gospel. Counseling is simply the personalized ministry of the Bible, tailored to the particular situations and problems of individuals and small groups. In Genesis, God led the way when he was talking to Adam and Eve in the Garden of Eden regarding the decision they made to disobey his word and follow the serpent. Although this is a clear cut example of God counseling the two (advising, consulting, teaching, helping, etc. ), I don’t think we (society) really looks at this situation in regards to a counseling aspect. Models of spiritual counseling in the Bible can serve as important templates for counseling in the professional (secular) as well as the Christian aspects. The emphasis on communication and relationships implies the concept of involvement which is dependent on availability to council (Acts 20:31) and the importance of balance in the process of counseling, (Galatians 6:2 and 6:5). Conclusion There are so many more words that are found in the counseling sector that are used throughout the Bible this paper only included a few. Hathaway (2009) talks about Proverbs and Psalms being gold mines of wisdom and consolation relevant to counseling. The words from the Bible relating to counseling enhances counseling and are deemed appropriate as they relate to counseling outside the Christian realm. A concern that arose while doing the research is that the Biblical counseling aspect is non-subjective and refers to the counsel and the instructive power of God through the Holy Spirit. Biblical words in counseling are the foundation from where counseling stems, which reiterates that there is nothing new under the sun as it relates to what can be found in the Word of God. McMinn (1996 )states scripture and the counseling approach God enjoins, treats all of human life. The Bible’s counseling, on which we must seek to model our own counseling, speaks to the gamut of problems in living. Scripture comforts the disturbed and disturbs the comfortable, turning people from foolishness to wisdom in every area: e. g. , learning to conciliate and to build constructive relationships in family, church, workplace, and neighborhood; attitudes and practices regarding finances and material possessions; responding to physical health or illness, to wealth or poverty, to success or failure, to acceptance or rejection; self-and other deception; addictive behaviors; the gamut of emotions, whether dysphoric (e. . , anger, depression, anxiety, fear, guilt) or euphoric (e. g. , love, happiness, joy, gratitude, confidence); decision-making; the response to suffering and bereavement; and so forth. In relation to using the Bible as a counseling tools it is best summed by Walker (2005) the Bible is sufficient to provide a systematic approach to counseling. The Bible pr ovides and models both counsel and counseling, teaching us to do likewise, with the intention of changing and sustaining people.

Antibacterial and biomedical applications of gold nanoparticles and Essay

Antibacterial and biomedical applications of gold nanoparticles and graphene composite - Essay Example Graphene has oxygen-containing groups embedded in its honeycomb-like six-atom carbon rings. Graphene oxide (GO) is used to in imaging and delivery of drugs (p.365). Georgakilas et al. says that the existences of carbon nano-structures in graphene enables it to form organic polimers which are very important in the formation of polimer composites which are important in biomedical application (p.4). also supports Yang et al. on the issue (n.d, p.1-59) T Yang et al. (2013), continue to say that the properties of graphene is also useful making of biological, pathogenic and pharmacological processes that make it necessary delivering therapeutic drugs since its used for the detection of specific proteins through the â€Å"sand witch † immunoassay which is useful in the binding of proteins and secondary antibody. This is why the graphene is used in the creation of cancer-detection biomarker. This occurs when the layers of graphene are used to increase the surface area for capturing large amounts of Ab1 and when it is further amplified; it achieves multi-enzyme-Ab2 which is functionalized carbon nanospheres (Yang et al. 2013, p.367). Graphene is also used in quenching the fluorescence of other fluorescent dyes which is used in fabricating fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET). FRET sensors are used for monitoring ssDNA (Yang et al. 2013, p.367). According to Polte et al. (2010), Gold can be used in various fields of medicine, biotechnology, and catalysis. This makes it one of the most important subjects in the study of nanoscale materials. Gold nanoparticles are prepared using various processing routes like chemical, sonochemical and photochemical paths. However it is mainly made through the precipitation of the GNP in aqueous solution from dissolved gold precursors like HAuCL4 using reducing agents like sodium citrate, ascorbic acid, sodium boron hydride or block copolymers which

How Stem Cells Are Changing the Way We Think About Disease Essay

How Stem Cells Are Changing the Way We Think About Disease - Essay Example There seems to be a form of hope on the horizon with the increased study and awareness of the abilities of stem cells. â€Å"Where the promise of stem cell’s lies,† was recently discussed in a Time magazine recently featured an article titled, â€Å"How Stem Cells Are Changing the Way We Think about Disease.† After taking a look at were stem cells come from, what the promise is, and how they may very well affect the current generation’s hope for cures to many diseases, stem cells may never be thought of the same again. Stem cells are the building blocks upon which all life is formed. Every human started as a small grouping of complex cells in the uterus of his/her mother. From a few complex cells, stem cells, all other cells form to create the human body. Until recently, scientists could only gather and study stem cells from direct contact with them via, umbilical cord, or embryo study. Recently, however, they have discovered that they can generate stem ce lls from almost every part of the body; particularly, they have been able to generate them from skin cells. We are now led to the promise stem cells hold.

Discuss the key features of effective corporate decision making and Essay - 1

Discuss the key features of effective corporate decision making and access how well these are being applied in an organisation y - Essay Example Contextually, it can be stated that effective decision-making is a systematic process through which business managers select alternative sources and implement it in an efficient manner in order to attain their various business purposes and objectives by a significant level (Harvey, 2007). Police forces of the United Kingdom (UK) can be recognised according to the set of ranks under which several types of departments are operated in an effective manner. The UK police comprise British police force and City of London Police where various sorts of job responsibilities are distributed according to the departmental requirement. In general, the core mission of entire police forces is to prevent crime and protect community people against the conduct of any uncertain criminal assaults. It has been apparently observed that the UK police forces perform their job responsibilities according to the community requirements (Association of Chief Police Officers, 2011). In this paper the key features of an effective corporate decision-making process will be taken into concern. Moreover, the application of this process relating to the UK police force has also being discussed. ... n to determine the workplace objectives of the police force of the UK, it has been viewed that the core workplace objective of the UK police is to maintain equality that helps them to create and make essential decisions in order to improve their operational performance. In this regard, the Metropolitan Police Service (MPS) of the UK formulates certain equality objectives in order to evaluate diversity as well as equality amid the entire police forces. Through this aspect, departmental heads understand the behavioural attitudes of entire police force and also comprehend their acceptance capability towards fulfilling their different job responsibilities (Assistant of Chief Police Officer, 2011; Mayor’s Office for Policing and Crime, 2013). There are several equality objectives that are implemented within the workplace of the UK police force through which they can improve their operational performance. These equality objectives include delivering fair, responsive as well as favou rable services to every community member and engaging all the community members in listening as well as responding their respective problems. Additionally, the other objectives comprise developing an effective workforce in order to become more responsible towards the community members and preserving equality standards while performing and delivering services to the community members (Assistant of Chief Police Officer, 2011; Mayor’s Office for Policing and Crime, 2013). After acquiring a brief idea about the workplace objectives of the UK police force, it has been viewed that at present, UK police department face several types of workplace issues that impose considerable impact upon their operational activities. Since the past few years, ‘Public disorder’ is one of the challenging issues

Sustainable Design Case Study Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Sustainable Design Case Study - Research Paper Example The main reasons behind people moving towards urban areas are to seek employment, make shopping for purchasing goods, seek entertainment as well as attain better standard of living. Simultaneously, existing environmental infrastructures related to work as well as services are quite insufficient to serve the rise in population as well as population densities. It can be observed in this context that overcrowding leads to environmental vulnerabilities as well as degradation unless strategies related to reversing the environmental deterioration can be applied. One of the determinants of the sternness of environment conditions in the urban areas has been their regional ecosystem types such as mountainous, coastal and riverine among others. It needs to be remembered that the urban ecological types are significant components in identifying the environmental strategies along with preparing the plans for precise and sustainable urban development. The project also discusses regarding the physi cal planning, environmental health management and sustainable development. The main objective of the project analyzed in the paper is to make the urban areas quite self-sufficient, enjoyable place to live and thus sustainable (Williams, 2000). Challenges and Opportunities The most important urban environmental requirements by the people in the developing countries would comprise provision of healthy accommodation as well as other built surroundings, access to environmental infrastructural methods as well as services. It is worthy of stating the fact that the most severe influences on urban environment concerning people and which is caused by human being as well as nature are water pollution as well as depletion, air pollution and energy use and wastage. Furthermore, urbanization leads to solid waste and resource losses such as groundwater contamination and depletion, land and ecosystem degradation among others. There are a few infuriating factors as well in relation to the project w hich lead to urban environmental degradation that are lack of public as well as political awareness, lack of efficient public education as well as involvement along with requirement for public pressure and political will. It is quite noteworthy to control such factors and make policies to minimize the impact of the factors on the environment so that the sustainability of the urban areas can be ascertained (Williams, 2000). Involvement of Numerous Stakeholders The efforts at enhancing the urban environment would comprise the involvement of numerous stakeholders such as governmental bodies, Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) as well as the informal sector in defending the environmental problems. It also requires the efforts of numerous institutions, organizations as well as individuals. It becomes difficult for the isolated action to meet the requirements because of the swiftness and intricacy of change. It has been found that one of the most crucial causative factors to the prevai ling accumulation of urban developmental issues is the lack of synchronization of actions between various stakeholders as well as actors. In order to reduce this problem, it is necessary to have a major intention of working in harmony towards the attainment of the common objectives. When all the stakeholders collaborate in order to work towards the accomplishment of the goals of the particular project then it leads to greater synergy. It comprises

Lorex Pharmaceuticals Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Lorex Pharmaceuticals - Essay Example This essay discusses that Lorex Pharmaceuticals has developed and holds all patent rights to Linatol, a new high blood pressure medicine. Since the pharmaceutical industry operates in a monopolistically competitive atmosphere (where no specific pharmaceutical company dominates the market), the patent-holder of a new product can have considerable market advantage over other companies. Lorex pharmaceutical is therefore seeking solutions to optimize this competitive advantage by balancing cost, productivity, and quality with regards to the production of Linatol. To reach this end, the managers of Lorex Pharmaceuticals must determine and select a target amount to which each of the 10-ounce bottles of the product would be filled. This task takes into consideration two issues: 1) Specifying higher fill targets will lead to higher material cost but fewer seconds, and 2) use of the one-standard-deviation rule can cause production delays. Using tests to determine the optimal fill-line, it has been established that 10.17-ounce mark would result in optimal production and maximum returns. Since probability analysis is only suggestive and the accuracy increases with samples size, it is recommended that more tests be conducted to reach more accurate results. Quality assurance managers of Lorex Pharmaceuticals must determine and select a target amount to which each of the 10 ounce bottles of Linatol, a new high blood pressure medicine, would be filled. ... The pharmaceutical industry is ever changing, as can be seen from the many changes in the structure of markets and organizations that occur over the years. Competition in the industry is intense, which means that mergers, acquisitions, etc. are not uncommon. In the pharmaceutical industry in the U.S., there is an extreme contrast between a specific products market during patent enforcement (where a patent holder may control over 80 percent of the product's market and can charge premium prices) and after the patent expires (where market control is reduced to about 30 percent because of the many sellers and buyers that soon emerge after patent expiration). Lorex Pharmaceuticals has developed Linatol, a new high blood pressure medicine, and the company holds all patents right to it. A company that develops a new drug has the potential to realize very large profits. Decisions in manufacturing budgets and product specifications influence the capacity of a particular product line. These, in turn influence the productivity and actual profit of the company. Thus, manufacturers must take into consideration the cost and quality factors that go into production. It is not unusual for companies to pursue trade-offs in cost, productivity, and efficiency in order to pursue specific markets. This however, can result in poor product quality. This case analysis aims to present some solutions that would help Lorex Pharmaceuticals strike a balance between cost, productivity, and quality. Possible Decision Alternatives Quality assurance managers of Lorex Pharmaceuticals must determine and select a target amount to which each of the 10 ounce

Soil Consolidation during Construction Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Soil Consolidation during Construction - Essay Example Generally, any undrained loading or unloading will produce excess pore pressures in the loading area. Hence, construction of any type of infrastructure generates pressure on the soil on which the construction takes place. The excess pore pressures may be positive or negative, depending on the long term steady state pore pressures. In time, these excess pore pressures give rise to hydraulic gradients which cause seepage flow which then results to changes in the volume of the soil. Hence, the changes in soil volume are based upon the changes of effective stress as the excess pore pressures disperse. The gradual reduction in volume of a fully saturated soil of low permeability which is caused when stress is what consolidation refers to. More specifically, consolidation is the union of seepage caused by hydraulic gradients with compression due to the flow of the leakages and changes of effective stress placed against the soil. Consolidation leads to drainage of some of the pore water, which triggers the continuity of soil consolidation until the excess pore water pressure caused by the stress against the soil has completely dispersed. Through the test of time, consolidation leads to settlement of foundations or constructions due to the gradual softening of soil in excavations. Therefore, consolidation settlement is basically the vertical dislocation of the construction as a result of the volume change of soil during the consolidation. Hence, if a building is built over a layer of saturated clay, consolidation settlement will cause a stratum overlying a clay layer. Likewise, if an excavation is made in a saturated clay, crowding, the reverse of settlement, can be observed in the bottom of the excavation. This, on the other hand, is due to swelling of the clay resulting to a gradual increase in volume of the soil. The most basic case of consolidation is that of one-dimensional on which the strain generated against the soil is zero-lateral. One-dimensional consolidation occurs when all seepage flow and the effective stress placed against the soil is vertical. Hence, there should be no radial seepage or strain. If effective lateral stress is placed against the soil, the settlement will occur faster. This is because of the deformation of the soil under undrained conditions, in addition to consolidation settlement. Immediate settlement can be estimated using the results from elastic theory, which will be able to determine the elastic properties of the soil. Furthermore, before a structure is completely conceptualised, the magnitude and the rate of consolidation settlement should first be predicted using effective tools. One of the popular processes used in predicting the progress of consolidation is by setting up piezometers in order to document the change in pore water pressure with time. The scale of consolidation settlement can be determined by recording the levels of appropriate reference points on a construction and in the surface on which it will be built. In such measurement, levelling of the reference points should be accurate, working from a point of reference which is not subject to any type of settlement. During this process, every output should be documented, as this will determine the competence of theoretical methods to be used. The attributes of a soil during one-dimensional consolidation can be measured through oedometer test. This test, developed

The secret sharer by joseph conrad Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

The secret sharer by joseph conrad - Essay Example The captain then meets Leggatt, a run away murderer. He was the chief mate in another ship by the name Sephora where he had killed a fellow crew member accidentally weeks ago (Conrad 38). They talk with the captain who tells him that he will hide him in his state room. The captain of Sephora comes looking for him but they do not find him. Nobody knows that Leggatt hides in the cabin and the captain keeps him as a secret. Leggatt asks the captain to drop him off in an island because he cannot go home and face incarceration. It is this rapport that assumes the central position of the entire account, hence the name â€Å"secret sharer†. Activities that follow include the captain commanding his crew to steer the ship close to the Kho-ring Island’s shores (). This marks the climax of the secret whereby even other members are still in dark the intentions of passing by those shores where they end up protesting but captain’s words were final. They steer to the shores giv ing Leggatt time to escape whereas on the other side where he emanated thought of him having committed suicide (Conrad

Issues, concerns, and challenges in environmental adjucation in the philippine court system Essay Example for Free

Issues, concerns, and challenges in environmental adjucation in the philippine court system Essay Introduction The court system is an integral part of environmental enforcement in the Philippines and has made many important contributions to the field. However, environmental cases do not always progress smoothly through the judicial system. This paper is intended to identify important legal issues in the judicial system that affect or limit environmental adjudication. 2 The issues are divided between access to and competency of justice, and legal procedures. While many of these issues could be analyzed further, this paper will highlight the ones to which attention should be paid in any more comprehensive study of Philippine environmental case law. 3 This paper will also use examples and case studies from the United States to illustrate important legal points, since the U. S. and Philippines have similar legal systems. II. Issues A. Legal Procedure and Rules of the Court Because of their unique and complex nature, environmental cases are sometimes hindered by legal mechanisms and rules of procedure designed for non-environmental cases. These include rules on standing and class action suits that often do not take into account the fact that environmental damage impacts all citizens. Furthermore, the nature and science of environmental violations often means that statutes of limitations, evidentiary rules, and burdens of proof are not suitable. Some of these issues can be handled internally by the judicial system by instructing lower courts to apply rules liberally. The impact of all of these issues, and how many actually present problems for plaintiffs, is crucial. 1. Standing of Plaintiffs and Citizens Suits In environmental cases, a plaintiff may not necessarily be legally injured in the traditional sense by an act of environ-mental destruction to impair his livelihood. For example, plaintiffs cannot recover damages for fish killed by pollution because they lack standing, despite the obvious economic loss they suffered. 4 While the destruction of natural aesthetic beauty is a moral outrage that indirectly harms all citizens, under traditional legal standing person no would have standing to sue. 5 Furthermore, environmental laws are designed to prevent catastrophic harm that is often not imminent or contained to one geographic area, as opposed to the narrow, immediate harms that provide the basis of most standing requirements. 6 Strict rulings on standing could stifle environmental enforcement, especially since the Philippines lacks sufficient enforcement capacity and personnel. The Philippine Supreme Court has held that standing requires: Such personal stake in the outcome of the controversy as to assure that concrete adverseness which sharpens the presentation of issues upon which the court depends for illumination of difficult constitutional questions. 7 The plaintiff himself must have some cognizable and redressable injury. Litigating for a general public interest, or â€Å"mere invocation†¦ of [plaintiff’s] duty to preserve the rule of law†¦ is not sufficient to clothe it with standing†¦. †8 However, the standing requirement is considered a technicality that courts may waive if the case concerns a â€Å"paramount public interest. †9 In its dictum in Oposa v. Factorum, the Court said that children might even have intergenerational standing to sue to prevent the destruction of forests for future generations. 10 There are questions as to the strength of these to reduce the standing threshold for environmental plaintiffs. While courts may waive technical standing provisions when a case deals with a paramount public interest, it is not required to do so. 11 Furthermore, judges may reasonably differ on what constitutes a â€Å"paramount public interest† since there is no overriding theme o define it. For example, in Kilosbayan, the Court found that determining the legality of an online lottery system fell within this definition, whereas in Integrated Bar, it held that determining whether deploying marines for crime deterrence violates the Constitution does not. 12 The Court did reduce some of this ambiguity in Oposa by declaring that the right to a balanced and healthful ecology concerns nothing less than self-preservation and self-perpetuation, presumably a â€Å"paramount public interest. †13 However, because the Court’s discussion on standing in Oposa was dictum, neither this claim nor the right to intergenerational standing is binding law upon the lower courts. 14 Without further guidance from the Court, it is likely that many lower court judges would be reluctant to act boldly by declaring that a particular issue is a â€Å"paramount public interest† and would deny standing. Congress tried to reduce the standing threshold with citizen suit provisions in environmental statutes, but these have been of limited use thus far. First, only the Philippine Clean Air and Ecological Solid Waste Management Acts contain citizen suit provisions;15 notably, the Philippine Clean Water Act, enacted after these two laws, does not. 16 Second, citizens still bear the risk of paying a winning defendant’s attorney’s fees, which could be costly enough to discourage even valid suits. Most importantly, these suits are still subject to the â€Å"actual controversy† requirement of the Constitution. 17 What this means in the context of citizen suits has not yet been heavily litigated in the Philippines. However, lower court judges often require plaintiffs to show actual injury in the narrow or traditional legal sense. 18 Likewise, when prosecutors deputize citizens to enforce a suit, judges sometimes insist that such deputization is only valid for a single case or even invalid under the Rules of the Court. 19 As a result, citizens suit provisions have been largely unused. 20 Standing under environmental laws is hotly contested in the U. S. 21 The U. S. has put citizens’ suit provisions into almost all of its environmental laws. 22 Plaintiffs are required to show 1) an injury in fact, 2) causation between the injury and the defendant’s actions, and 3) redressability in court. 23 NGOs can sue upon a showing that any of their members would have had standing to sue. 24 The focus is not on the injury to the environment, but rather the injury to the plaintiff or NGO representing him. However, the injury can be economic or non-pecuniary, including aesthetic or recreational value. 25 The Court also held that civil penalties payable to the U. S. Treasury serve as redress as they deter polluters. 26 Causation is often the more difficult element to prove, which will be discussed below in  § 4. In New Zealand, the Environment Court has taken a more radical approach. It has eliminated formal standing provisions, requiring only that a plaintiff have a greater interest than the public generally in a controversy or that he represents a relevant public interest. 27 This makes citizen enforcement very easy. However, one might also be concerned about whether this would overburden the court; granting standing is a fine balance between permitting valid environmental claims and risking frivolous litigation. 2. Class Actions and Large Number of Plaintiffs As the notorious mudslide at Ormoc in 1991 and Marcopper mine tailings in Marinduque show, injuries from environmental damage can be grave, costly, and affect a huge number of persons. 28 Even in less publicized events, the number of injured persons may often make individual litigation burdensome and complex. Furthermore, some members of an injured class may be too poor to prosecute their claims individually. Class action suits can facilitate litigation of such situations by providing for: [T]he protection of the defendant from inconsistent obligations, the protection of the interests of absentees, the provision of a convenient and economical means for disposing of similar lawsuits, and the facilitation of the spreading of litigation costs among numerous litigants with similar claims. 29 Other studies have shown that class action suits can provide important social benefits and encourage citizen enforcement to supplement agency regulation. 30 Class actions may the discourage attorney disloyalty that encourages lawyers to plea bargain for less than the actual injury. As happened in the Chinese poachers case in Palawan, lawyers or prosecutors may not seek full compensation for the damage caused because they have an incentive to expend less time and money on a small case. 31 However, because class actions provide aggregate incentives for lawyers, and fees and settlements undergo higher judicial scrutiny, such â€Å"disloyal† settlements are less likely to occur. 32 While the Philippine Rules of the Court provide for class action suits,33 judges will sometimes be reluctant to certify classes and instead treat the injuries of plaintiffs as separate, despite any common questions of law or fact. In Newsweek, Inc. v. IAC, the Supreme Court ruled that a defamatory remark directed at 8,500 sugar planters do not necessarily apply to every individual in a group, and therefore are not actionable as a class action. 34 Likewise, a judge might refuse to certify a class of pollution victims because they suffer different types of physical injuries, even if the source was the same pollution. In a more litigated legal system, there would be more case law to guide judges on the appropriateness of class actions. However, in the Philippines, this does not yet exist. Add to this the high cost for lawyers, and class actions become even less feasible for most Philippine plaintiffs. 35 In the U. S. , it is much easier to litigate environmental class action suits. The Supreme Court has clearly instructed courts to construe its class action rules liberally and encourage class action suits. 36 This limits judicial discretion in refusing to certify classes to only extreme situations. Furthermore, the rules allow plaintiffs to join by default rather than affirmatively. 37 For environmental cases, the courts will look at the potential number of plaintiffs or the size of the estimated areas that a pollutant has infected to see if plaintiffs have met the numerosity requirement, but they are not required to meet a certain minimum number. 38 For the Philippines, which, unlike the U. S. , has too few environmental class action suits, adopting some of these mechanisms may create a more efficient adjudication process for plaintiffs, defendants, and the courts. 3. Statute of Limitations and Delayed Injuries Unlike a traditional tort or crime, many environmental injuries are not discrete events but only manifest themselves after many years. Pollutants may build up in soils, waters, or human bodies for years without reaching a dangerous level. Cleanup of such sites can take even longer. For example, when the U. S. military left Subic Bay in 1992, it left behind hazardous waste sites with contaminated water that continue to poison the land over a decade later. 39 However, for environmental torts, the statute of limitations is four years, a relatively brief time. This could preclude the litigation of injuries from pollutants with an onset delayed for many years. Thus far statutes of limitation issues have not been a significant factor in environmental litigation. The Philippine Supreme Court addresses similar problems in other fields of law with the discovery rule, allowing the statute of limitations to run when the plaintiff actually or should reasonably have discovered the injury. 40 However, as the courts handle more brown environment cases, it will have to address the tensions between punishing past violators and protecting defendants from time-barred claims. 41 U. S. courts have adopted the due diligence discovery rule, particularly for Clean Water Act and wetlands violations. Because immediate detection of pollution or illegal fill into a wetlands is almost impossible, applying a statute of limitations strictly would defeat the remedial purpose of the act. 42 Courts try to effectuate the Congressional purpose of the statute with the due diligence discovery rule and giving the government a chance to file action against the polluter once the violation is reported to the EPA. 43 Some courts44 realize that a statute of limitation may be inappropriate for cases when pollution continues to cause problems over time. These courts argue that a: Defendants unpermitted discharge of dredged or fill materials into wetlands on the site is a continuing violation for as long as the fill remains. Accordingly, the five-year statute of limitations †¦ has not yet begun to run. 45 The statute of limitation will not run for as long as the pollution remains. Many courts will also treat common law tort nuisances as continuing violations. 46 This approach has the added benefit of allowing the government to fine violators for each day the pollution remains, capturing the more of the costs of environmental destruction. 47 Much of U. S. case law regarding the effect of statutes of limitations on environmental issues comes from ambiguities in the statute of limitation for complex processes, particularly the Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation and Liability Act (CERCLA), or Superfund law. 48 Because Congress anticipated the complexity and long-term nature of site cleanups, it structured the statute of limitations in a flexible manner, allowing the court hear an initial cost recovery action prior to issuing a declaratory judgment to avoid letting the statute run. It also allows the plaintiff to file subsequent cost-recovery actions to recapture further response costs incurred at the site. 49 However, the law’s different statutes of limitation for remedial and removal actions phases of the cleanup has led to confusion over how the phases are defined. Courts often defer to EPA determinations in characterizing the type of action due to its technical expertise, rather than making that judgment itself. 50 4. Meeting the Burden of Proof In environmental cases, there may be no line of direct evidence from the perpetrator to the harm. In pollution cases it is often impossible to prove that the plaintiff’s harm was caused by his exposure to the toxic material. 51 For example, if several factories dump pollution into Manila Bay, it is impossible to determine which caused a particular environmental harm. Furthermore, the courts cannot expect absolute scientific certainty on the effects of a health risk such as electro-magnetic fields from power cables. 52 Given these problems, the traditional burden of proof standards, preponderance for civil cases and beyond a reasonable doubt for criminal,53 may prove to be prohibitively high. Philippine courts employ liability-shifting mechanisms to manage this difficulty in environmental cases. For example, pursuant to the Fisheries Code, courts use reverse burden of proof to place the burden of exculpation on defendants found with high-explosive or cyanide fishing gear. 54 Furthermore, the courts have begun to experiment with the precautionary principle, placing the constitutional rights to health and safety above development. 55 The courts also employs res ipsa loquitor in tort suits,56 although this has not been a prominent feature of environmental litigation. Plaintiffs may also hold multiple defendants jointly and severally liable for an act of environmental destruction that cannot be traced to a single defendant company, such as the pollution in Manila Bay. 57 Until recently, Philippine lawmakers did not see a need to introduce a strict liability58 regime into environmental laws. 59 Strict liability was employed in other fields, but not environ-mental laws. More recent anti-pollution laws such as the Clean Air and Solid Waste Management Acts establish that a violation of the standard is actionable through citizen suits. 60 In U. S. , because of its common law tradition, courts are more willing to employ strict liability. Generally, when a defendant, â€Å"though without fault, has engaged in [a] perilous activity †¦, there is no justification for relieving it of liability. †61 Such â€Å"perilous activities† include operating explosives, nuclear energy, hydropower, fire, high-energy explosives, poisons, and other extremely hazardous materials. 62 For citizens suits under environmental statutes, plaintiffs need only show that the law was violated, not prove fault or any actual or threatened harm, without regard to mens rea. 63 When it is impossible to determine the proportion of fault of a large number of defendants, U. S. courts may approximate fault through other indicators, including market share and production output. For example, in Hymowitz v. Eli Lilly ; Co. , the New York Court of Appeals calculated the size of each defendant drug company’s market share for DES to determine their fault in the injuries caused by the drug. 64 This also allows courts to address injuries sustained in the past by approximating past fault through data available in the present. The Environment Court in New Zealand has adopted an even more radical approach and done away with formal burdens of proof. It focuses instead on obtaining the best possible evidence for a case. This makes it easier for plaintiffs appealing to the court to dislodge an unfavorable opinion from a lower court. 65 While the Philippine Supreme Court may not wish to go this far, the court could more strict liability for hazardous materials and market share liability tools. 5. Damages and Remedies Even if a plaintiff wins damages from a defendant, if the defendant keeps polluting or cutting trees, the damage will continue. 66 In the Philippines, this is particularly problematic as the fines and penalties imposed under law are often not enough to change a company’s behavior. In order to encourage development, Congress prohibited temporary restraining orders against government projects. 67 Since government infrastructure projects can cause massive damage to ecosystems, this prohibition is significant. Some courts try to avoid this loophole by claiming that the prohibition cannot violate a person’s constitutional right to health or safety. 68 The extent of this loophole is unclear. Finally, even if a plaintiff or prosecution wins its case, most of the time the true costs of the defendant’s actions will not be reflected in the award. Damages in civil cases and punishments in criminal cases generally capture the costs of any suffering caused to humans, not animals or plants. While some settlements may include forcing a defendant to install pollution-control equipment or contribute money to conservation programs, this still likely does not recoup the full extent of damage to the environment. It is difficult to regenerate natural forest, coral reefs, or populations of endangered animals. The judicial system does not have much power to remedy this problem. The decision on the purpose of environmental laws and how much plaintiffs recover is for the Congress. However, it is important for judges to understand that environmental cases deal with only a fraction of the true costs of environmental damage. This may convince some judges to be more sympathetic toward environmental cases. While punishments for defendants may seem exorbitant, understanding the unaccounted costs of environmental damage puts these into perspective. B. Access to and Competency of Justice Aside from the legal issues described above, in any country, there are a host of practical and logistical issues that impede the judicial system’s ability to handle environmental cases. This includes the lack of financial resources of plaintiffs, particularly in poorer parts of the Philippines. Plaintiffs and their lawyers must also feel safe from physical and financial harassment while litigating their case. On the other hand, both courts and lawyers are often unfamiliar with environmental laws and science, limiting their ability to adjudicate in the field. Finally, court dockets are often congested, and environmental cases are not given priority. The judicial system’s role in addressing these issues ranges from fairly involved to almost no role. Yet, in attempting to understand environmental adjudication in the Philippines, it is crucial to recognize the role these practical realities play. 1. Financial Costs of Adjudication In any legal system, filing and litigating a case takes an enormous amount of time and money. Philippine courts impose a filing and transcript fee, although these are waived for citizens suits. Reflecting on his experiences, famous environmental attorney Antonio Oposa suggested that these costs were the greatest inhibitions for most plaintiffs. 69 Furthermore, for injunctive remedies, plaintiffs must post a bond to cover the defendant’s potential damages, which may be too large for a poor plaintiff with livestock and property as his only assets. 70 Most Philippine lawyers do not use a contingency fee system, so plaintiffs must be able to pay for legal services up front and over the lengthy litigation process. 71 On top of this, there is the risk of financially crushing harassment suits from defendants, or Strategic Lawsuit Against Public Participation (SLAPP). Even the logistics of feeding and housing witnesses, and their lost time from work, poses significant problems for predominantly poorer plaintiffs. In the U. S. , NGOs often receive enough donations to allow them to engage in litigation and have staff lawyers. More importantly, plaintiffs’ attorneys often work on a contingency basis, allowing poorer plaintiffs to avoid large financial risk. Furthermore, NGOs and environmental groups seeking injunctive remedies are often required only to pay a nominal bond or may be exempted completely. 72 While some might worry this makes litigation in the U. S. too easy, it drastically improves poor people’s access to justice. Pursuant to the Constitution’s emphasis on the poor, the Supreme Court of the Philippines has taken some efforts to alleviate this problem. Poorer plaintiffs are exempted from paying docket, transcript, and other fees and are granted free legal counsel. Furthermore, the Court provides an annual grant to the Integrated Bar of the Philippines’ Free Legal Aid Program. 73 However, not all environmental plaintiffs qualify as poor, particularly NGOs, even though they often have limited financial resources. Furthermore, even though the amount of the bond is under the discretion of the judge, judges are reluctant to do this because they worry about being accused of abusing their discretion. 74 2. Harassment of Plaintiffs and Lawyers Because of the high stakes involved in environmental cases, defendants may go to extraordinary means to intimidate and harass plaintiffs and their lawyers. It is not uncommon for defendants to lodge harassment or SLAPP suits against environmental plaintiffs or DENR prosecutors to attempt to force them to drop their charges. 75 Enforcers who confiscate the equipment of criminals are often sued for robbery. 76 Some defendants take even more extreme means such as physical violence or even murder. 77 Such dangers were recently illustrated by the murder of environmental advocate Elpidio de la Victoria and death threats against attorney Oposa. 78 This makes lawyers unwilling to take on difficult environmental cases. To stifle SLAPP suits, the courts should promptly apply the anti-SLAPP provisions in the Philippine Clean Air and Ecological Solid Waste Management Acts when applicable. 79 This means dismissing any harassment suits as quickly as possible. However, plaintiffs relying on other laws have less protection. 80 Congress must expand the use of anti-SLAPP provisions to other environmental laws. Furthermore, law enforcement must vigorously prosecute any defendants who resort to violence. In short, to facilitate environmental cases, the court must protect the ones bringing the cases. 3. Technical Knowledge Among Judges and Attorneys Judges must decide questions of science as well as law in order to dispose of most environmental cases. This is particularly true for brown issues, which involve uncertain science regarding the exact effects of a pollutant. In the U. S. , scientific understanding of pollutants led to new classes of trespass and tort suits that held emitters liable for their actions. 81 However, both sides in a case will try to use any scientific uncertainty to their advantage, or even create scientific uncertainty even when it does not exist in order to confuse the court. Judges must understand what scientific evidence should be admitted and what is not valid. 82 Judges and lawyers need to understand the science well enough to determine which arguments are unfounded and which are plausible. Because general the courts have general jurisdiction and are not specialized in environmental issues, this problem will have to be addressed by providing judges and lawyers with supplemental training in environmental sciences and law. PHILJA and other organizations are already successfully doing this. 83 Eventually, however, this problem may be resolved through a change in the adjudication system. If the Philippines moves toward environmental courts or administrative adjudication84 (as is being considered), judges would be trained specifically to handle environmental cases. 4. Obtaining and Preserving Evidence For green issues, preserving evidence may be difficult. After an illegal logger or fisher is captured, DENR can confiscate the logs and fish. These goods rot or deteriorate over time. Proper procedure requires taking pictures of the logs and fish for admission into court. Specially trained fish examiners prepare reports on the cause of death of fish. When done correctly, this preserves the evidence for use at court. However, some areas may not have fish examiners on hand or the prosecution may not properly prepare the pictures for admissible evidence. It is not uncommon for custodians of the confiscated items to lose track of them over time. Because cases take so long in the court system, this can be a real problem. 85 It is also difficult for enforcement agents to find and confiscate the equipment and vehicles used in environmental crimes, as the boats and trucks perpetrators use are highly mobile. Despite the inconvenience it may cause defendants, such equipment must be held as evidence and to prevent further environmental damage. The accused, or unindicted conspirators, will often petition for the release of their equipment. 86 Unfortunately, sympathetic lower court judges may sometimes grant these requests, despite the contravening case law. 87 Moreover, prosecutors must have the vehicles stored in a safe area despite the lack of storage space. Finally, it is important for enforcers to determine the location of violators, particularly close to the boundaries of natural parks. Community enforcers may not be trained in determining the exact location of where they apprehended the violators. Wealthier units can use GPS, but often the location of apprehension is disputed. 88 Any doubt in this area can destroy the prosecution’s case. 5. Docket Congestion In many countries, including the Philippines, courts are overburdened with cases. Yet, the Philippines’ forests and animals are already disappearing quickly. Irreversible damage to ecosystems can occur much more quickly than the many years it may take the court system to resolve a case. As Prof. La Vina noted, the environment cannot wait for the court system. 89 According to Justice Nazario, the Philippines needs over 300 trial court judges to fill the vacancies and resolve pending cases. 90 Low pay discourages the few who are qualified. Many of these vacancies are in remote parts of the country, such as Nueva Ecija, Occidental Mindoro, and Surigao Norte, where much of the fishing and forestry violations occur. Furthermore, the Supreme Court is burdened by the large amount of cases granted review each year, including the automatic review for death penalty cases. 91 Given this burdensome congestion, environmental cases are not given any special treatment on their own merits. Criminal environmental cases may be somewhat more expedited because they involve criminal punishments, but most judges and lawyers show no urgency with regard to environmental cases. 92 The Supreme Court attempted to alleviate this problem with Administrative Order No. 150B-93, setting up special courts to handle illegal logging, but these remain underutilized. 93 Until cases can move through the court system more quickly, the enforcement of environmental law will be delayed. III. Conclusion This paper has highlighted important legal and practical issues preventing efficient adjudication of environmental cases in the Philippines. However, due to logistical and budgetary constraints, this paper focused mostly on case law from the Supreme Court and the personal experiences of lawyers. In order to fully understand environmental adjudication throughout the court system, further research should ideally analyze environmental cases from all Municipal and Regional Trial Courts, Courts of Appeal, and the Supreme Court. It is important to see how cases area actually treated, particularly with respect to the issues examined in this paper. Furthermore, there may be important regional variations, particularly between areas with more natural resources and more urban areas. Even before such a study is undertaken, the courts can apply several lessons from this paper in the near future. First, while the courts have already taken commendable steps to waive filing fees and other costs for paupers, as mentioned above the definition of pauper may be under inclusive by not including NGOs. The courts should consider other definitions to reflect the realities of environmental NGOs. 94 Second, the Supreme Court should instruct the courts to dismiss SLAPP suits expeditiously. While the natural resource laws may not have anti-SLAPP provisions, Congress clearly did not intend to encourage such suits and there is nothing legally preventing the courts from dismissing them faster. Finally, the courts can address standing for citizens and class action suits. In particular, it should set out a clear position on standing in environmental cases. Other challenges will require long-term planning for the courts. Reducing the docket congestion is critical to expedite justice, although doing this will likely take years and require more judges. Likewise, the ongoing effort to train judges and lawyers in environmental law and science must continue, particularly as new judges and lawyers enter the judicial system. The courts should also familiarize themselves with the legal mechanisms available to them, particularly in shifting the burden of proof. However, this will be most useful in pollution cases as they become more common in the future. Ultimately, the challenges described above will require multifaceted solutions from various stakeholders in the Philippine legal system. For example, Congress must work to improve standing and citizens suit provisions in other environmental laws. To reduce the financial risk of brining a suit, law firms could move toward a contingency fee system. Furthermore, it is the responsibility of DENR and environmental agencies to ensure that evidence is properly recorded and preserved. Finally, as the Philippine grows and wealth spreads, more plaintiffs will be able to undergo the financial costs of adjudication. Eventually, the best solution to these challenges may come not from within the courts but from a new adjudication system. The U. S. has worked successfully with administrative adjudication for environmental issues in the EPA and Department of Interior. Other countries have set up independent environment courts. Based on the results of further studies and the needs of the country, the Philippines may move to adopt one of these models. This would allow expert adjudicators to handle cases under rules that make sense for environmental issues. Finally, it is important for judges at all levels of the judicial system to understand the severity of environmental degradation in the Philippines. The only redress environmental plaintiffs or prosecutors may have is in their court. Thus, they should not be reluctant to grant standing or award large damages, when appropriate, because doing so will ensure that both humans and the environment have their proper day in court.

Reflective Essay Essay Example for Free

Reflective Essay Essay Reflective Essay Receiving the horrible news was more painful than walking on a thousand nails. The many times I told myself that it was all just a dream, the more I began to believe myself. All until the horrible realization that it was happening and that it was too good to be true. Realizing that every morning I woke up to go check his room he wouldn’t be there was one of the many realizations I had to experience. But there was one positive outcome of the death of my brother. It taught me that you can never take the time you spend with your loved ones for granted even if you only see or converse with them for five minutes, never take it for granted. I remember this tragic event like it was yesterday. My brother and I were 8 years apart. So we were very close. He left off going to Pennsylvania to go to Penn State College. We talked and texted at least 3 times a day if not more. Our conversations were very meaningful and I will always cherish the ones that we had. During Christmas of ’09 he came down for the home going of my aunt. Just being able to see him was enough for me. While talking to him my mother and I noticed that he had a lump on the left side of his neck and my mother advised him to get it checked out. So, he went to the doctor and they ran tests and found out that it was a cancerous tumor and that they would need to start treatment right away. Finding this out, my brother then moved back to Florida to start his treatments at ORMC (Orlando Regional Medical Center). After about 3 months of treatment, the doctor said that the cancer was more aggressive than they thought it could develop so they said there was nothing else that they could do. The medical staff proceeded to send Earl to hospice where he would no longer be taking chemotherapy but just medicine to relieve him of the pain. We all knew he wouldn’t be with us that much longer, but the persistence and determination in me believed that he would live to see me reach high school, get my license, and go to prom. Over time he stopped eating and had to be fed by tube. When he stopped eating, I realized that sooner or later my dreams of him seeing my accomplishments the things older siblings see their younger siblings do were over. He began to get weaker and weaker and he stopped talking to anyone. I remember the last time I saw him. We were lying down in his bed together and we were singing his favorite song. As it was time for me to go he said â€Å"I love you Boo† and those were the last words I ever got to hear him say to me. The next night, we all got that dreading phone call that he had left us here on earth to be with the heavenly father. The news was just heartbreaking and I couldn’t bear to hear it. This experience was very painful but it also allowed for me to gain some positivness in my thinking. Many teenagers today live life being ungrateful and snobby. Walking around thinking like that isn’t always the best because as the quote says you never realize what you had until it’s gone. Nowadays it takes a tragedy for modern day teenagers to learn and show gratitude towards parents and family members. The death of my brother awakened me to live life to the fullest and don’t go a day not doing anything because you never know when your time may be. It also taught me to never go a day without telling my other siblings and my parents I love you. Just saying those simple three words could mean a lot to anyone. Another thing it taught me was to always be happy and greet others with a smile and hug(depending on how well you know the person), even some strangers are welcome to hug if they are having a bad day. Just doing the simplest things could impact someone else’s life and you would never know. So if there is anything I could leave you with, never take life for granted, live life to its fullest and enjoy yourself. Make your life worthwhile and enjoy it.

Analysing Race in William Shakespeares Plays

Analysing Race in William Shakespeares Plays This dissertation provides a critical discussion of the issues of race in such William Shakespeare’s plays as The Tempest, Titus Andronicus and Othello. Analysing the context, in which these plays are created, and applying to such theoretical tools as the qualitative research method and the social constructionist approach, the research evaluates different perceptions of race through the principal characters of the plays and investigates in depth various critical views. The received results reveal that William Shakespeare interprets the issues of race in a close connection with religious beliefs, politics and social events in Elizabethan period. Although some findings of the research are consistent with the previous studies, other results provide new interpretations and valid data as to the racial issues in Shakespeare’s plays. The issues of race constitute one of the most important themes in world-wide literature. Although in Elizabethan England the ideas of race were much ignored due to the confusion and lack of knowledge in regard to foreigners, William Shakespeare usually applied to the issues of race and racism in his plays. On the basis of such portrayal, it is clear that people of different races lived in England in those times, and that Shakespeare was aware of the complex relations between English people and foreigners. Through his characters, the dramatist uncovers the negative aspects of Elizabethan social ideologies that created a gap among races, alienating foreigners from other members of English society and contributing to their destruction. However, even today the researchers continue to dispute about the implications of race in Shakespeare’s plays. Some scholars maintain the notion that the differences in religions and cultures aggravated the alienation of various races in England, w hile other researchers oppose to this viewpoint, claiming that the colour of skin influenced the complex relations between Englishmen and foreigners. Thus, the issue of race is rather controversial and it should be discussed through religious, cultural, social, political and ethnic contexts in the plays of William Shakespeare. To some extent, such controversy can be explained by the fact that the race has always been utilised to substitute the established social systems for new social hierarchies that reflected their own norms and principles. In this regard, in Elizabethan times people were socially divided into one or another race, taking into account the colour of skin, religious beliefs and cultural traditions of various individuals. Another controversy concerns the origin of the word â€Å"race† that usually dates back to 18-19th centuries; therefore, Shakespeare’s researchers prefer to substitute the term â€Å"race† for the term â€Å"otherness† in their analyses of Shakespeare’s plays. However, such shift from one term to another term is not able to eliminate Shakespeare’s unique in terpretation of racial issues in the selected plays. William Shakespeare wrote many of his plays in Elizabethan period, the era when, contrary to the commonly accepted view, people of various races began to arrive to England. Some recent findings provide valid evidence as to the existence of black people in the 16th-century London. In this regard, the issues of race, to which the dramatist applies in such plays as Titus Andronicus, The Tempest and Othello, provide a new vision on the impact of these races on cultural and social life of English people. At the beginning, black people were taken by force and brought to England as exotic creatures that possessed no rights, but finally they became the members of English society who were called as the Moors. However, such racial integration soon resulted in rather complex tensions among different races, and Shakespeare reflected these relations in his works. As Bernard Harris puts it, â€Å"To Elizabethan Londoners the appearance and conduct of the Moors was a spectacle and an outrage, emph asising the nature of the deep difference between themselves and their visitors, between their Queen and this ‘erring Barbarian†1. Thus, English people could rarely distinguish one race from another race. However, Shakespeare, who took an active part in public life and visited various cultural and public-service institutions, had an opportunity to observe foreigners and attitude of the English towards them, depicting his observations in his literary works. In addition, Margo Hendricks claims that various economic and social changes occurred in England in the middle of the 16th century2. In particular, England established constant relations with Morocco. As a result, various merchants and military people of different races began to arrive to the country and acquire certain positions among the members of English society. All these non-English people, who arrived from Africa, Israel, Ireland, Wales, Scotland and some other places, were called as ‘aliens’ or ‘outsiders’. Despite this integration, many Englishmen revealed racial biases towards these foreigners. According to Ania Loomba, â€Å"Jews, Moors and Christians were never simply religious categories, but variably articulated with nationality, and ethnicity, and often colour†3. Thus, on the one hand, English people accepted foreigners in their country, but, on the other hand, they treated them as outsiders, if these foreigners acquired more power and knowledge in comparison with native citizens. Various violent attacks were initiated by English people against these foreigners; such hostility was intensified by Church that pointed at the poverty of Englishmen as a result of foreigners’ integration into social, political, economical, religious and cultural life of English people. In this regard, English society either rejected these foreigners or forced to assimilate to them, paving the way for racism. This can be explained by the fact that Englishmen were afraid of acquiring culture and traditions of foreigners, as they became engaged in economic relations with them. As Margo Hendricks claims, â€Å"Beginning in the middle ages, the English engagement with ‘foreigners’ often functioned on two levels: spiritual and material†4. Although Englishmen realised that they could receive material profits from their interactions with people of different races, they made everything to preserve their superior position. It was in this environment of racial tensions and complex relations that William Shakespeare created such plays as The Tempest, Titus Andronicus and Othello. The aim of this dissertation is to analyse the representation of race in the selected Shakespeare’s plays on the basis of different perceptions and viewpoints. The research is divided into sections. Chapter 1 presents a statement of the problem that reveals the core of the analysis. Chapter 2 provides a general overview of the issue, observing the context, in which the plays are produced. Chapter 3 offers a survey of the works that have been written on the issues of race in Shakespeare’s plays. Chapter 4 points at the research methods that constitute a theoretical basis for the conducted analysis. Drawing upon earlier findings and evidence, Chapter 5 observes in detail the issues of race in such plays as The Tempest, Titus Andronicus and Othello. Chapter 6 makes a summarisation of the results, while Chapter 7 stresses on the limitations of the dissertation and provides some suggestions for further research. Due to various controversies and ambiguities that emerge during the analysis of William Shakespeare’s plays, the researchers provide different interpretations of the dramatist’s portrayal of race. For instance, Hunter points at the impact of the existing religious and cultural norms on the attitude of Englishmen towards foreigners in Elizabethan times5. Thus, the researcher considers that Shakespeare’s plays reflect the spirit of that period and relations among various races. Although some viewpoints of Hunter are of considerable interest to understanding of Shakespeare’s presentation of race, his analysis is limited only to the religious explanation of racial differences. Hunter pays no attention to social and cultural changes that occurred in England in the 16-17th century, shaping the relations between Englishmen and foreigners. In his analysis Hunter suggests that Elisabeth had rare contacts with foreigners, but this is not really true, if taken into a ccount her edicts that she issued at the end of the 16th century, according to which foreigners had to be expelled from England. This fact points at Elisabeth’s awareness of foreigners and her fear of them; however, on the other hand, the Queen continued to admit black people to her court and, to some extent, supported the spread of slavery. More contradictory findings are presented in regard to individual Shakespeare’s plays. Discussing the â€Å"moorishness† of Shakespeare’s play Othello, Barbara Everett provides â€Å"a challenge to [our] perhaps too simple â€Å"African† sense of Othello†6. Everett claims that the dramatist wants to uncover racial tensions in the 16-century England, thus â€Å"Othello is, in short, the colour the fiction dictates†¦the Moor may be quite as much â€Å"Spanish† as â€Å"African†7. In this regard, Everett applies to the discussion of political, religious and social contexts of Elizabethan period in her interpretation of racial issues. Virginia Mason Vaughn regards Othello’s blackness as the reflection of his otherness, as she states, â€Å"The effect of Othello depends†¦ on the essential fact of the hero’s darkness, the visual signifies of his Otherness†8. While Arthur Little points out that Othello’s tragedy can be explained not only by his different race, but also by his marriage to Desdemona, a white female, and by his jealousy9. Davison goes further in his analysis of Shakespeare’s play, in particular, he suggests that â€Å"Othello is not ‘about’ race, or colour, or even jealousy. It dramatises the way actions are directed by attitudes, fears, and delusions that rule the subconscious than by evident facts†10. Analysing Shakespeare’s play The Tempest, Curt Breight points out that in this work the dramatist’s portrayal of race reveals colonialism and terror of James I, thus Prospero’s attempt to achieve the superior position over other people is a simple reflection of King’s actions11. Paul Brown expresses the similar opinion in regard to the play, claiming that The Tempest interferes into colonialism, and â€Å"this intervention takes the form of a powerful and pleasura ble narrative which seeks at once to harmonize disjunction, to transcend irreconcilable contradictions and to mystify the political conditions which demand colonialist discourse†12. Further, Brown points at the fact that Caliban’s rape and assault are explained by his intensified sexuality that was considered to be a characteristic feature of Indians and other races, except white people. Thus, Prospero’s control over Caliban reveals the suppression of Caliban’s sexuality as well. William Shakespeare’s play Titus Andronicus has been considered as his most unsuccessful literary work for a long time; however, the inability of researchers to understand this play can be explained by the fact that Titus Andronicus is rather ambiguous and doesn’t conform to a particular classification. Here, Shakespeare interprets the racial issues in their connections with religious beliefs of Romans and provides two-fold vision on morality of both ‘civilised’ people and barbarians. Charles Martindale and Michelle Martindale point at Seneca’s influence on this play, uncovering the dramatist’s utilisation of classical sources and claiming that â€Å"Seneca was the closest Shakespeare ever got to Greek tragedy†13. Although all these critical works provide different interpretations of Shakespeare’s plays, taken in integrity, they generate rather accurate data. This dissertation applies to two research methods – a qualitative research method and a social constructionist approach. As crucial theoretical research tools, these methods provide an opportunity to discuss the issues of race in Shakespeare’s plays through various perceptions and viewpoints. The qualitative method is aimed at analysing different interpretations of race, generating valid data that have been rarely mentioned in the earlier studies. According to Taylor, â€Å"Interpretation†¦ is an attempt to make sense of an object of study. This object must, therefore, be a text, which in some way is confused, incomplete, cloudy, seemingly contradictory†14. Drawing upon certain qualitative data, the research uncovers controversial arguments in regard to the discussed issue and evaluates cultural and social events in Elizabethan times. The principal sources are taken from various literary texts and critical researches on Shakespeare. The social constructionis t approach allows to investigate social, cultural and historical contexts of the period, in which Shakespeare’s plays are created. This approach is especially appropriate for this research, as the term â€Å"race† is regarded as a social construction phenomenon. This means that the social constructionist approach challenges the conventional biological interpretation of race, evaluating race through the social perspective. Thus, the method provides a basis for analysing the unity between race and social environment in Elizabethan era. 5.1. The issue of â€Å"Moorishness† in Shakespeare’s play Othello Although many contemporary critics and playwrights make attempts to disregard the issue of race in Shakespeare’s play Othello, the dramatist himself considers this aspect to be crucial for understanding his characters. The principal protagonist Othello belongs to the race of the Moors, and as Everett points out, â€Å"moorishness† was a condition that had a meaning, for Shakespeare and his audiences once casually familiar though long lost to us†15. According to Barbara Everett, the word â€Å"Moor† is thought to originate from mauri who lived in Mauritania province in North Africa16, but English people preferred to apply this term to all foreigners who differed from them either in race or religious beliefs. As Emily Bartels claims, the ‘Moor† was usually associated with â€Å"similarly ambiguous terms as â€Å"African†, â€Å"Ethiopian†, â€Å"Negro† and even â€Å"Indian†17, because the origin of the Moors was rather ambiguous, either the mixture of Berber and Arab or Muslim. In this regard, when Shakespeare calls Othello a Black Moor, he accentuates the blackness of the principal hero, because the Moors were both white and black. By presenting the black character, the dramatist uncovers the existence of racism in the 16-century England and reveals his awareness of the complex relations between black and white people. According to Harris, â€Å"When Shakespeare chose, for this a udience, to present a Moor as his hero, he was simply more aware than his contemporaries of the complex pattern made by white and black†18. Othello demonstrates the biases of English people, in general, and Queen Elizabeth, in particular, towards the Moors. For them, black colour of these people symbolised evil and disaster. Thus, as Margo Hendricks claims, â€Å"In the writing of the day, the Moors were described as ‘subtle’, ‘stubborn’, ‘bestial’ and intolerant†19. Othello’s blackness emerges as a result of his relations with other people who reveal certain biases towards this protagonist. Roderigo claims him â€Å"a wheeling stranger†20 with thick lips, â€Å"gross clasps of a lascivious Moor†21. Iago evaluates Othello through his racial biases, pointing out that jealousy and sexuality are characteristic features of the Moors. As Edward Berry states, Othello’s moorishness â€Å"is not only a mark of his physical alienation but a symbol, to which every character in the play, himself included, must respond†22. Brabantio also expresses his negative attitude towards Othello, claiming that he is disappointed with Desdemona who â€Å"fall in love with what she fear’d to look on†23. Desdemona herself seems to revea l certain racial biases to the person she loves. Othello’s words admire Desdemona, but she is not physically attracted to him. Such prejudices prevent her from understanding Othello who is obsessed with beauty of Desdemona. By contrasting black and white, the dramatist simultaneously uncovers the complex relations between two races, revealing that cultural differences may result in tragedy. On the other hand, such shift from whiteness to blackness or vice versa reflects the elements of racial attitude of Venetian people towards Othello. This can be explained by the fact that the Queen was obsessed with white colour, proclaiming it as a colour of goodness and virginity, while black colour was considered as a colour of evil and dirt. Such attitude resulted in the creation of the complex racial tensions between Englishmen and black people. For instance, almost all characters of Shakespeare’s play avoid calling Othello by name; instead they constantly address him as the ‘Moor’, implicitly rejecting him as the member of their society. Thus, Othello is treated as an object because of the racial differences between him and other members of Venetian society. This viewpoint can be explained b y the social constructionist approach, according to which society initially establishes some norms and principles, and further it applies these rules towards certain personalities. Othello makes constant attempts to integrate into this society, but it turns away from him. Despite the fact that he possesses some values and the rank of a general, society is not able to overcome its racial prejudices. As Everett puts it, â€Å"Othello is almost any ‘colour’ one pleases, so long as it permits his easier isolation and destruction by his enemies and by himself†24. In this regard, interpreting the racial issues of the play, Everett points at political and social situations in the country in the 16th century. In particular, moorishness of Othello may reveal his position as a foreigner, a person who differs from the rest of population and who is regarded as a damnable creature. According to Hunter, Elizabethan’s â€Å"awareness of foreigners was closely conditioned by a traditional religious outlook on the world†25. Therefore, the attempts were made to reduce the position of these people in society. In fact, Othello excels many respecta ble members of society, and he sincerely believes in the beginning that â€Å"My parts, my title, and my perfect soul / Shall manifest me rightly†26. But racial prejudices appear too powerful, destroying Othello’s intentions to achieve an appropriate place. Iago is the first person who rises against Othello, trying to prove that such people are dangerous for the existing social norms. As he claims to Desdemona’s father, â€Å"Even now, now, very now, an old black ram / Is tupping your white ewe†27. As a result, Brabantio’s initial attitude towards Othello is greatly changed under such racist words. He tries to prove that Othello has utilised some spell to make his daughter marry him. Such action reveals that in those times the Moors were regarded as people engaged in mysterious and awful affairs. Thus, the only reason for Brabantio’s accusation is Othello’s blackness. Although Othello seems to initially win the respect of Brabantio, Desdemona and some other people by protecting Venice society from Turks’ invasion, such racial prejudices do not allow them to accept Othello as equal to them. Despite the fact that they admire his courage and romantic nature, they are unable to admire him when socie ty reveals its rejection towards Othello. As a result, racism, inspired by Iago, destroys both Othello and Desdemona. Their racial differences appear too powerful and they prevent these characters from understanding each other. In this regard, Shakespeare seems to oppose to the existing social system and ideologies that are based on the principles of superiority. Othello, who is only racially different from other members of society, is regarded as inferior to them, and it is racism of these people that causes the character’s destruction. The ideologies of Elizabethan England were aimed at establishing such social norms that regarded other races as inhuman. Othello’s alienation occurs because of these social standards that shape the attitude of society towards certain individuals. The qualitative research method demonstrates that a literary text usually reflects cultural and social contexts of a certain period28; this is just the case with Shakespeare’s play, in which the dramatist portrays his characters of different races through specific contexts. Shakespeare reveals that, on the one hand, Othello’s military achievements allow him to socialise with the members of the upper class, but, on the other hand, the character’s blackness deprives him of the possibility to belong to this society. Such racial attitude of people negatively influences Othello who starts to experience uncertainty about his social stand. This uncertainty is aggravated when he decides to marry a white female who belongs to the upper class. Gradually, Othello becomes obsessed with jealousy and doubts and acts like a real animal, forgetting his noble manners. Therefore, racism gradually destroys the protagonist and reveals the hate of such people as Iago to people of other races. Iago makes everything to alienate Othello from Desdemona, Brabantio and other members of the upper class, changing people’s attitude towards Othello with his racist words. Although at the beginning of the play, Iago’s wife Emilia doesn’t express her attitude to Othello, she explicitly reveals her racist views after Desdemona’s murder when she claims: â€Å"O, the more angel she, / And you the blacker devil!†29. Further Emilia calls Othello â€Å"as ignorant as dirt†30; this comparison allows Shakespeare to show the attitude of white people towards the black race. Like Othello, dirt is black, and dirt is thrown away, because it is nasty. Many people in Shakespeare’s play have the similar opinion of Othello, alienating from him and implicitly revealing their xenophobic nature. They even provide Othello with hot temper and increased sexuality. To some extent, such viewpoint is explained by the fact that Englishmen identified black people with the son of Noah who was punished for seeing his father naked and with Islamic religious traditions of polygamy. In this regard, William Shakespeare manages to realistically portray society of his time that rejects any person who belongs to a different race or adheres to different religious beliefs. 5.2. Racism and social domination in The Tempest Although Caliban, the character of Shakespeare’s play The Tempest, is not really black, he also experiences alienation because of his race. His mother comes from North Africa and is considered of Berber origin, that’s why many white people, who appear on the Caribbean island, express racial attitude towards Caliban. As a result, this protagonist is usually regarded as a devil and inferior to other characters. For instance, Prospero teaches Caliban the ways to live in the island; however, then he starts to treat Caliban as a â€Å"poisonous slave [and] devil†31, considering this vulgar barbarian as a threat to Miranda. In this regard, Prospero implicitly reveals the existing stereotypes of the 16th-century when people with black colour of skin were thought to possess intensified sexuality, thus marriages between a black male and a white female were rarely accepted in European society. It is clear that such notion is greatly exaggerated, but Christian laws and moral principles of those times were rather strict, opposing to each display of otherness. Due to the fact that Caliban’s origin is not clearly identified in the play, the character falls under the category of â€Å"otherness†, performing a subordinate role throughout Shakespeare’s narration. On the other hand, Caliban is important to Prospero who mentions to Miranda that they â€Å"cannot miss him. He does make our fire, / Fetch in our wood, and serves in offices / That profit us†32. These words prove that colonisation initiated by English people and utilisation of black population for their own benefits were crucial for England. Colonisation allowed the country to overcome many economic difficulties, such as unemployment and hunger, increasing England’s power among other European countries. Therefore, English colonisers utilised various measures to control these black people; however, Shakespeare reveals that Caliban doesn’t want to accept such treatment, he considers himself as the original owner of this place. Before the arrival of Prospero and Miranda to the island, Caliban is really perceived as a king, but the attempt of Prospero to civilise Caliban transforms the character into a slave. As Caliban states, â€Å"Thou strokst me and make much o f me†¦ / and then I lov’d thee, / And show’d thee all the qualities o’th’isle†¦ / For I am all the subjects you have, which first was mine own king†33. Prospero makes an attempt to create a hierarchical structure in the island, according to which people are divided into superior and inferior on the basis of their race and position. Such behaviour of Prospero proves that the involvement of English people in slavery began in the middle of the 16th century when Englishmen realised the benefits of slavery, failing to understand the negative impact of this superiority on black people. For instance, finding himself in close relations with white people, Caliban starts to feel alienation in the place he lives. According to Ric Allsopp, Prospero’s dominance over Caliban reveals the social structure that existed in England in that period and that deprived foreigners of the possibility to lead normal lives under racial prejudices34. Colonisation of the island aggravates these biases and provides Prospero with an opportunity to receive power over the islanders. As MacDonald puts it, â€Å"representations of racial identity and difference, similarly matter and show in early modern English literature, [are] itself the product of an age of slavery and colonial displacement†35. By applying to such claims as â€Å"Providence Divine†36, Prospero implicitly points at the fact that he has a control over the island and its inhabitants37. However, Caliban states that it is his mother who controlled the island and further transferred this right to Caliban. In this regard, Prospero, utilising various magic tricks, takes a control over the islanders by brute force, putting its inhabita nts into positions of slaves38. In order to avert people’s attention from this control, Prospero claims that Caliban has tried to rape his daughter, simultaneously revealing the stereotypic vision on barbarians. But some critics consider this accusation as Prospero’s attempt to conceal his violent actions in regard to Caliban and other native people39. Thus, it is no wonder that Caliban rises against Prospero and his control; however, finally Prospero suppresses this assault, proving that white people are superior and more powerful than people of other races. Society is considered to exist on the basis of two ways of interaction: subjugation and mutual interchange of profits. In the case of Shakespeare’s play The Tempest, the relations between two races are based on subjugation that allows Prospero, as the member of a more powerful racial group, to enslave Caliban and other native inhabitants and utilise them for his own benefits. As a result, a race of white people appears in a more advantageous position than a race of the colonised black people. It is clear that their relations are not based on mutual interchange, that’s why the members of the second group are deprived of their freedom, former life and cultural roots. However, by the end of the play Prospero realises that on a long-term basis such kind of relations can result in many negative consequences for both interacted groups. Therefore, despite the fact that Caliban usually acts as a barbarian black savage, Shakespeare reveals that, to some extent, Caliban’s actions are justified. When white people arrive to the island, where he lives and where he is thought to be a king, and deprive him of his rights and freedom, he rises against such subordinate position. Caliban, who collides with another culture and another race for the first time, is unable to understand the difference between these white people and native inhabitants. But for Prospero the difference is obvious; Prospero, Trinculo and other white people regard Caliban as a monster, and Trinculo even thinks of taking this beast to England and demonstrating him in specific shows. These shows were rather popular and beneficial for the country’s economy in the 16th century, a s people of different races, mainly Indians or the Moors, were shown to English audience for a certain fee. As Caliban understands that Prospero transforms him into a slave, he opposes him by claiming: â€Å"I am subject to a tyrant, a sorcerer that by his cunning hath cheated me of the island†40. As Prospero makes an attempt to civilise Caliban, his major aim is to suppress Caliban’s nature and make the character serve him. Such dominance over wild inhabitants reflects the attitude of Europeans towards these people of different race. This attitude is especially obvious from the following words of Miranda, Prospero’s daughter: â€Å"Thy vile race / Though thou didst learn – had that in’t which good natures / Could not abide to be with; therefore wast thou / Deservedly confined into this rock, / Who hadst deserved more than a prison†41. Such judgement reveals serious racial prejudices; it is clear that Caliban is not able to withstand such attitude, and his rape of Miranda and his assault against Prospero are direct consequences of this racist treatment. However, Prospero manages to stifle a rebellion and change his attitude towards these black people. He leaves the island and releases Caliban. Such actions reveal Shakespeare’s views o n colonisation and race; the dramatist proves that the relations among different races should be based on mutual benefits and freedom. But if one race suppresses another race, this suppression will finally result in the destruction of both races. Despite the fact that Caliban acquires the language and manners of the colonisers, they do not change his nature, because racial attitude, suppression and enslavement deprive Caliban of adopting these norms. Simultaneously, these actions deprive Prospero of establishing good relations with native inhabitants, instead inspiring hatred in them. But as Prospero provides freedom to Caliban, he also achieves inner freedom and understanding of other people. 5.3. Interpretation of race in Titus Andronicus Similar to Othello, Aaron, one of the characters of Shakespeare’s play Titus Andronicus, also belongs to the race of the Moors and is portrayed as a black person. But, unlike Othello, this protagonist confirms to the stereotypic representation of a black villain who claims that â€Å"If one good deed in all my life I did / I do repent it to my very soul†42. Being the lover of Queen of the Goths, Aaron manages to ruin the Andronicii, as well as Titus Andronicus. Like Othello, he is also regarded as a devil, a symbol of evil and destruction. However, Aaron differs from Othello in many ways; above all, Aaron, this â€Å"barbarous Moor†43, applies to various actions and tricks in order to intensify his social position. But as Bartels puts it, although â€Å"Aaron has the freedom and ability to manipulate and maneuver close to the court circle, he is still an underlying servant with no possible avenue for advancement†44. Aaron himself understands that his appea rance and race are serious obstacles to his acceptance in society, that’s why he wants to seclude himself from others and to â€Å"bring [his son] up / To be a warrior and command a camp†45. As a result, Aaron’s son manages to survive, while Aaron is murdered by Lucious, because Aaron is considered to be an absolute evil that deserves death. In this regard, Othello appears to perform a certain role in society, while Aaron’s position comes to simple adjustment to the existing environment. Therefore, contrary to Othello, the Moors in this play are presented as false and unfaithful. Both Aaron and his Moor lover deceive Titus and make him apply to cruelty in regard to his own family. But the charac